Mariology
Mariology is the theological study of Mary, which methodically presents teachings about her to other parts of the faith, such as teachings about Jesus Christ, redemption and grace. Christian Mariology aims to connect scripture, tradition and the teachings of the Church on Mary. There exist a variety of Christian views on Mary ranging from the focus on Marian veneration in Roman Catholic Mariology to Protestant objections, with Anglican Marian theology in between. As a field of theology, in recent centuries the most substantial developments in Mariology (and the founding of specific centers devoted to its study) have taken place within Roman Catholic Mariology, as Orthodox views on Mary have been mostly expressed in liturgy and are not subject to a central dogmatic teaching office. In terms of popular following, membership in Roman Catholic Marian Movements and Societies has grown significantly. Ecumenical differences continue to exist in substance and style but are more easily understood because of the very existence of Mariology.
The problem for Mariology is how to determine what is theologically normative. The primacy of Scripture as a source for doctrine had been firmly established by the Reformation, but the pronouncement of Mary’s Immaculate Conception in 1854 seemed to undermine that primacy, relying instead on oral tradition and transmission of belief and scriptural interpretation. In 1950, Pius XII’s papal bull Munificentissimus Deus made the popular devotion of Mary’s “Assumption” binding on the faithful—she was now officially deemed to have been assumed body and soul into heaven at the close of her earthly life. The status of the dogma (now put on a par with the Trinity) proved divisive at a time of budding ecumenical initiatives. The feast of the Assumption, celebrated on 15 August, appropriated a date previously associated with another Marian festival (and in the Eastern Church from the sixth century with the dormition [“falling asleep”] of Mary). Did Mary die? Pius XII did not give an answer. But it was argued that because of her unique holiness she was not obliged to wait until the end of time for physical redemption. In the Eastern tradition, her soul is in heaven, her body in Paradise until the end of time; but both traditions insist upon the incorruption of her body.
Mariology took a new turn in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with a proliferation of apparitions and papal pronouncements on the value of the rosary and the intercessory power of Mary. In 1946, Pius XII consecrated the world to Mary’s immaculate heart. A series of Marian congresses began. In the year of the first congress in Rome (1950), Pius XII defined the dogma of the Assumption. In 1954, a second congress proclaimed Mary as Queen. Principal sites of Marian apparition are Guadalupe (Mexico, 1531), Lourdes (France, 1858), and Fatima (Portugal, 1917). Others worthy of pious belief include Paris (1830, to St. Catherine Labouré), La Salette (1846), and Pontmain (1871). Such apparitions follow a regular pattern—Mary appears to a humble, simple person alone or with others; the reaction is initially skeptical, but miraculous cures follow, so the Church establishes a regulated cult. At Lourdes, Bernadette confirmed the validity of the 1854 pronouncement by reporting that Mary told her, “I am the Immaculate Conception.” Her messages tend to be conservative and quietist, in contrast with a trend in recent years to associate her with liberation theology and a call to radical social justice (looking to Luke 1.46–56).
Mary’s example encouraged Christians to see virginity and celibacy as superior to marriage. Paul also played his part in the development of a metaphysical dualism denigrating the physical and lauding the spiritual. Ambrose of Milan (fourth century) reinforced the perception of the superiority of chastity over marriage by underlining the connection between the virginal conception and the purity of Christ. Augustine’s theory of original sin, which eventually became normative, gave rise to a nexus of negativity surrounding female sexuality in particular. The childbearing of Mary contrasted with every other experience of labor, and women learned that their suffering was the consequence of their own sinfulness. This attitude to female sexuality was chiefly generated and disseminated by single men; only in the last 150 years has the edifice of male theologizing about women begun to be dismantled, and almost exclusively by women. The myth and cult of Mary have been argued as undermining and devaluing women, so that Mary’s value as a role model for women is now at an end. Many feminist writers detect in her a confidence trick, a standard impossible to emulate because of her unique position. Whether people are attracted by religious symbols as mirrors of reality, or visions of what could be, is another matter. But the gap has widened (as Paul VI observed in 1974) between what the modern world offers women and what traditional Marian devotion offers them. Is her virtual deification the ultimate reinforcement of Christian patriarchy, or the ultimate challenge to it? It partly depends on whether the focus is on her uniqueness (divine maternity) or her potential typicality (obedience). Her virginal conception and perpetual virginity have been seen as depreciating the holiness of sex within marriage, and the Annunciation can even be interpreted as a male projection of fantasy, with Mary a willing, grateful victim.
Diversity of Marian views
A wide range of views on Mary exist at multiple levels of differentiation within distinct Christian belief systems. And in many cases, the views held at any point in history have continued to be challenged and transformed.
Over the centuries, Roman Catholic Mariology has been shaped by varying forces ranging from sensus fidelium to Marian apparitions to the writings of the saints to papal encyclicals.
Anglican Marian theology varies greatly within itself, from the Anglo-Catholic (very close to Roman Catholic views) to the far more typically Protestant Evangelical views.
Eastern Orthodox theology calls Mary the Theotokos, emphasizing her status as the mother of God incarnate in Jesus, but not the mother of God from eternity.
Protestant views of Mary vary from denomination to denomination. They focus generally on interpretations of Mary in the Bible, the Apostles’ Creed, (which professes the virgin birth), and the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, in 431, calling Mary the Mother of God. While some early Protestants created Marian art and allowed limited forms of Marian veneration, Protestants today do not share the veneration of Mary practiced by Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox. Martin Luther’s views on Mary, John Calvin’s views on Mary, Karl Barth’s views on Mary and others have all formed modern Protestant views.
A better mutual understanding among different Christian groups regarding their Mariology has been sought in a number of ecumenical meetings which produced common documents.
Outside Christianity, the Islamic view of the Virgin Mary, known as Maryam in Arabic, is that she was an extremely pious and chaste woman who miraculously gave birth while still a virgin to the prophet Jesus, known in Arabic as Isa. Mary is the only woman specifically named in the Qur’an and the nineteenth chapter of the Qur’an, which is named after her, begins with two narration of “miraculous birth”, although she is not considered divine by Muslims.
Mariology is a field of theology in which deeply felt pious beliefs of the faithful and hagiography conflict often with scientific analysis and critical historical reviews of beliefs and practices. This conflict has been recognized early on. Around the year 1300 William of Ware described the tendency to attribute almost everything to Mary . Bonaventura warned against Marian maximalism. “One has to be careful as to not to minimize the honour of our Lord, Jesus Christ” In the 20th century, Pope Pius XII, “the most Marian Pope in Church history” warned nevertheless against both exuberant exaggerations and timid minimalism in the presentation of Mary
Theotokos
Theotokos (Greek) is a title of Mary, the mother of Jesus used especially in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches. Its literal English translations include God-bearer and the one who gives birth to God; less literal translations include Mother of God; it is transliterated Theotocus. The Council of Ephesus decreed in 431 CE, that Mary is Theotokos because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human.Theotokos specifically excludes the understanding of Mary as Mother of God in the eternal sense. Christians believe that God is the cause of all, with neither origin nor source, and is therefore “without a mother.” This stands in contrast to classical Greco-Roman religion in particular, where a number of divine female figures appear as “mothers” of other divinities, demi-gods, or heroes. For example, Juno was revered as the mother of Vulcan; Aphrodite, as the mother of Aeneas.
On the other hand, Christians believe God the Son is begotten of God the Father “from all eternity”, but is born “in time” of Mary.
Theotokos thus refers to the Incarnation, when the Second Person of the Holy Trinity took on human nature in addition to his pre-existing divine nature, this being made possible through the cooperation of Mary. Since mainstream Christians understand Jesus Christ as both fully God and fully human, they call Mary Theotokos to affirm the fullness of God’s incarnation. The Council of Ephesus decreed, in opposition to those who denied Mary the title Theotokos (”the one who gives birth to God”) but called her Christotokos (”the one who gives birth to Christ”), that Mary is Theotokos because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. As Cyril of Alexandria wrote, “I am amazed that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called Theotokos or not. For if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is the holy Virgin who gave [Him] birth, not [Theotokos]?” (Epistle 1, to the monks of Egypt; PG 77:13B). Thus the significance of Theotokos lies more in what it says about Jesus than any declaration about Mary. Within the Orthodox doctrinal teaching on the economy of salvation, Mary’s identity, role, and status as Theotokos is acknowledged as indispensable, and is for this reason formally defined as official dogma. The only other Mariological teaching so defined is that of her virginity.
Theotokos Iconography
The Panagia Hodegetria or “Directress” icon depicts the Virgin Mary presenting her son on her left arm to the viewer and with her hand she is gesturing towards him, pointing to Christ as ‘The Way’. Christ, on the other hand, has his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing with the index and middle fingers joined (to refer to the two natures of Christ) and his thumb locks over the other fingers (to signify the Holy Trinity). The term ‘Hodegetria’ is Greek and translates to ‘the One who Shows the Way’. In this icon, although the Virgin Mary is the largest subject, the principal image in the icon is Christ. His presence is like that of an adult.
Typical features of the Hodegetria include the starburst on one or both shoulders and on the part of the blue mantle that covers the forehead. The fringe on the mantle indicates imperial status, as does the throne that is occasionally included in the image. The Virgin Mary’s frontal gaze is also a key feature of the Hodegetria type. The odd letters on the left and right and level with the top of the Virgin’s head appear to be an adaptation of the usual inscription that occupies this position in other Hodegetrias: “MP ?Y” — the first and last Greek letters of the Greek words for “Mother of God.” The name Hodegetria also refers to the Hodegon Monastery in Constantinople, which has such an icon.
St. John Damascene was accused of being an enemy of the state in which he lived, and as punishment, the Caliph ordered that one of his hands be chopped off. Afterwards, St. John took the severed hand, prayed in front of the icon of the Theotokos and fell asleep. The Theotokos wrought the miracle of re-attaching the dead hand of her servant and bringing it back to life. When he awoke, he found that his hand was completely healed.