The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS)

The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of about 900 documents, including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves in and around the ruins of the ancient settlement of Khirbet Qumran on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea in the West Bank.

The texts are of great religious and historical significance, as they include the oldest known surviving copies of Biblical and extra-biblical documents and preserve evidence of great diversity in late Second Temple Judaism. They are written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, mostly on parchment, but with some written on papyrus. These manuscripts generally date between 200 BCE and 65 CE. The scrolls are traditionally identified with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, though some recent interpretations have challenged this association and argue that the scrolls were penned by priests in Jerusalem, Sadducees (Zadokites), or other unknown Jewish groups.

The Dead Sea Scrolls are traditionally divided into three groups: “Biblical” manuscripts (copies of texts from the Hebrew Bible), which comprise roughly 40% of the identified scrolls; “Apocryphal” or “Pseudepigraphical” manuscripts (known documents from the Second Temple Period like Enoch, Jubilees, Tobit, Sirach, non-canonical psalms, etc., that were not ultimately canonized in the Hebrew Bible), which comprise roughly 30% of the identified scrolls; and “Sectarian” manuscripts (previously unknown documents that speak to the rules and beliefs of a particular group or groups within greater Judaism) like the Community Rule, War Scroll, Pesher (Hebrew pesher = “Commentary”) on Habakkuk, and the Rule of the Blessing, which comprise roughly 30% of the identified scrolls.

The creation of the scrolls

The largest and most costly material used for the Dead Sea Scrolls was the carefully prepared parchment made from the skin of any clean (kosher) animal, including the cow, calf, sheep, goat, and even the more exotic deer and gazelle. Surprisingly, some of the scrolls were written on papyrus imported from Egypt, but the preferred material was locally produced leather from goats and cows, which has been identified by current DNA testing.

Tanning, as well as the related art of making parchment, was a complicated and malodorous process performed by guild craftsmen employing many trade secrets, some of which remain a mystery. The fresh skin was washed and then soaked in water to cause it to swell. After the hair was scraped off, the skin was stretched on wooden frames and carefully shaved to make it as thin as possible and yet thick enough to withstand heavy use. Even today the finest parchment and vellum must be shaved by hand using a large, curved knife. Then the skin was soaked in a solution of salt, barley flour, gall nuts, and lime water for many days, after which it was rinsed, stretched on frames, and allowed to dry flat. It was then polished smooth with pumice stone, a process that also whitened the surface.

The most impressive examples of their craft are the small skins used to make the tefillin discovered at Qumran. Because they needed to be folded into tiny bundles, the parchments were also incredibly thin, perhaps made from fetal calfskin. The writing on them is the smallest script yet discovered from this period, yet it is still legible. It is obvious that the scribes took great pride in the creation of such miniature works of art and faith.

The process of making scrolls entailed cutting two rectangles from the hide, avoiding the spine. This left a lot of waste, but only the finest material could be used. The pieces were sewn together with heavy linen thread or thinly slices kosher animal tendons. The Great Isaiah Scroll required seventeen sheets, or the hides of at least nine animals. The thread holes were made with a wooden awl rather than a metal one to avoid touching the sacred texts with an element associated with war.

At Qumran enigmatic fragments were found scattered on the ground floor of one room in the main building. Because they were found on top of ceiling debris, these fragments likely fell from a second-story room. When reassembled, the fragments formed three tables approximately twenty inches high and fifteen feet long. These tables, originally made from a mud-brick frame covered with carefully smoothed plaster, are remarkable in that nothing like them has been found, nor are they mentioned in the documents of that period. The tables are so low that a scribe would have been forced to kneel in order to write on them, leading some scholars to believe that these tables were only used to inspect a completed scroll in its entirety. The scribes may have written on small wooden desks, of which no trace was found.

Two inkwells, one ceramic and the other bronze, were also found in the debris of this same room. The traces of ink found within match the comparison of ink used on the majority of the scrolls. The traditional ink was a preparation soot from olive-oil lamps. Honey, oil, vinegar, and water were added to thin it to the proper consistency. In order for the ink to bite into the writing surface and not fade, later scribes added gall nuts to the formula. Sometimes the concentration of gall nut was so strong that the ink eventually ate completely through the parchment. The scribes probably tried their best to achieve the proper balance of the ingredients, hoping that the ink would stand the test of time. Their greatest concern was to achieve a rich, lustrous black, even if it was at the expense of a flexible, translucent ink. Occasionally the thick ink would flake off the surface, and then the Torah was considered unfit for use, necessitating restoration in a prescribed manner in order to maintain the perfection of the sacred writings and to enable their continued use.

Not surprisingly, the pen was the symbol of the scribe. A carefully trimmed pen indicated the pride that the scribe took in his work. The minuscule size of the individual letters on the scrolls is especially impressive to anyone who has tried to write with a handmade pen, for the pen point had to be cut to a chisel shape of very narrow width. Although no pens have survived from Qumran, Jewish writings indicate that the scribes used reeds at this time. When repeated dipping of the pen in ink caused the reed fibers to grow soft, the scribe would have to retrim the point. The fact that no difference in stroke width is apparent among the finest scrolls testifies to the precision with which the scribes trimmed their pens.

As is usual with Aramaic alphabets, Hebrew letters hang from the line rather than stand on it, as in the Greco-Roman tradition. If a top horizontal stroke is called for, it should follow this line, whereas the bottom element of the letter usually slants down to the left, further strengthening the movement of the eye to the left. The strongest element in the Hebrew letter form, today as well as anciently, is the contrast between thick and thin strokes, the result of the way the pen point is trimmed. It appears that paleo-Hebrew favored a strong contrast, while, for example, The Great Isaiah Scroll shows a more uniform balance of thick and thin elements. The letters were written slowly and carefully, in contrast to modern calligraphy’s emphasis on speed and rhythm.

Though Hebrew is read from right to left, the individual letters are written from left to right, since the pen must be pulled over the surface, never pushed. Today, Jewish scribes touch the letter with the pen immediately after completing a stroke, depositing a small amount of surplus ink on the wide stroke so that when it dries it will be even blacker and form a raised surface. This is a risky process, because any smudges could render the whole page unusable. This process also contributes to the problem of flaking.

The ancient scribes were willing to risk these problems to achieve the strongest contrast between ink and writing material. When we consider how tiny the letters are, we can appreciate this aesthetic. Some calligraphers accentuated the letter size by leaving a generous space between lines, allowing the reader to “breathe” as his eyes moved down to the next line. This minute script must have been written in direct sunlight by scribes with good eyesight. Since advancing age brings diminished visual acuity, most elderly scribes and readers would not have been able to read these scrolls, and this made the custom of public reading on the Sabbath even more significant.

Scribes learned how to create beautiful letters by copying standard models. A potsherd, the scratch paper of the ancient world, discovered in a rubbish heap at Qumran shows what might have been the beginning of this long learning process. Presumably a student wrote a copy of the alphabet in a painstaking manner, repeating some letters twice. One can imagine him studying his teacher’s model and then trying to reproduce every curve. To ensure absolute accuracy, even competent scribes were never to write a Torah scroll without a trustworthy copy in front of them. The meticulous care required in copying documents is emphasized in the following quotation from the first-century scribe Ishmael: “My son, be careful in your work for it is the work of Heaven, lest you err either in leaving out or in adding one iota, and thereby cause the destruction of the whole world.”

A scribe was to purify himself before beginning his day of writing, and especially before writing the name of God. A shallow washbasin discovered with the remains of the tables at Qumran may have been used for this very purpose. Some scribes used the paleo-Hebrew script for the sacred name of Deity while others, such as the scribe of 4Q175 Testimonia, used four dots.

So diligent were the scribes in accurately transmitting sacred texts that their work forms an unbroken chain of remarkable consistency over the centuries. The copying of a Torah scroll was the greatest opportunity for a Jewish artist to express his love of beauty, for it was believed that the art of writing itself was a gift from God. According to Jewish tradition, before the creation of the world the Torah already existed, written in “black fire on white fire.” Thus the alphabet predates the world, and consequently no effort was spared in transmitting the written word faithfully.

Because sacred scrolls were intended to be handled and used reverently, precautions were taken to ensure their longevity. One problem was that the leather scrolls could absorb moisture and oils from human skin, causing permanent stains. For example, the outside of the Isaiah scroll carries the handprint stains of those who unrolled it. Perhaps as a result of an awareness of this problem, the custom developed of not touching the written surface of a scroll.

When not being used, the scrolls were presumably kept on wooden shelves, traces of which have been found at Qumran. Synagogue floor mosaics represent the wooden cabinet built to contain the Torah scrolls as quite elaborate and evocative of temple images. It could have doors or a curtain to conceal and protect the scrolls.

When a scroll became damaged and thus could no longer be used, it was not destroyed (doing so would be irreverent) but was placed in the synagogue in a special room called a genizah, where it was safely stored along with other worn scrolls. The copious fragments found in the Cairo Genizah have survived for centuries.

Some of the Qumran scrolls were found wrapped in plain linen cloth and sealed in jars. This simple but practical form of protection is perpetuated in the cloth mantle used today to encase the Torah scrolls when they are placed in the ark. The jars that were specifically designed to store scrolls show the same efficient use of material-straight-sided, widemouthed, with a broad, flat lid. Perhaps the most prized scrolls had jars custom-made for them by Qumran potters.

Many scrolls have survived the passage of centuries because of the ancient custom of hiding sacred texts during time of war.

Basic Facts about the Dead Sea Scrolls

1. The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered between 1947-1956 in 11 caves (5 by Bedouin; 6 by archaeologists) on the upper northwest shore of the Dead Sea. The area is 13 miles east of Jerusalem, and is -1300 ft. below sea level (Jerusalem is +2400 ft. above sea level).

2. Near the caves are the ancient ruins of Qumran, which was excavated in the early 1950′s and appears to be connected with the Scrolls.

3. The Scrolls appear to be the library of a Jewish sect which was hidden away in caves around the outbreak of the Jewish-Roman War (66 CE). Archaeological evidence indicates the settlement had been inhabited since about 150 BCE. 

4. The sect has most often been identified with the Essenes, who are mentioned by the historian Josephus and are in a few other sources, but are not in the NT They were an intensely messianic, apocalyptic, baptist, wilderness, new covenant group, led by a priest they called the “Teacher of Righteousness” who was opposed and possibly killed by the establishment priesthood in Jerusalem.

5. The Scrolls so far discovered represent a library of over 900 documents representing as many as 350 separate works in multiple copies, many of which are represented only by fragments. Cave 4 alone contained 520 texts in 15,000 fragments. 

6. This library contains copies of the Scriptures (Isaiah Scroll), copies of other non-canonical books known to us (Enoch), and holy writings which the group itself produced (rules of faith, commentaries on Scriptures, and many other fascinating works otherwise unknown to us). In Cave 3, there was one Copper Scroll found, which contains a list of 64 hiding places where gold, silver, sacred objects, and other scrolls were hidden.

7. The major intact texts, from Caves 1 & 11, came into Israeli hands and were published by the late 1950′s–they are now in the Shrine of the Book museum in Jerusalem.

8. The bulk of the scrolls were in Jordanian control and were placed with a team of Christian (mostly Catholic–no Jewish) scholars who over the next four decades published eight volumes of material. The team was left intact by the Israelis after the Six Day War (1967). The publication schedule was constantly delayed and many outsiders found the official team to be arrogant and unyielding. The team was expanded in the 1980′s and was much more broadly based, finally including Jewish scholars and a more open approach to sharing materials.

9. As much as 40% of the Scrolls, mostly fragments from Cave 4, remained unpublished and unreleased (photos), until pressure mounted in the 1980′s. A breakthrough occurred in the Fall, 1991 the photos were published by the Biblical Archaeological Society in a non-official edition; a computer reconstruction, based on a concordance, was announced; the Huntington library pledged to open their microfilm files of all the scroll photographs.

10. The Scrolls are of great interest to both Jews and Christians. They represent a non-rabbinic form of Judaism, and also contain many important parallels to the Jesus movement. Final interpretations of these materials, with the newly released Scrolls fully factored in, remains open.

11. Scrolls related to those found in the caves around Qumran were also found at Masada, the Herodian fortress taken over by Jewish Zealots after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE and finally taken by the Romans in 73 CE.

12. An ostracon (inscribed pottery shred) containing a 16 line letter written in 68 CE by someone giving their property over to the community was discovered at the site of Qumran in January, 1996.

The Caves of Qumran

Cave 1

Allegedly discovered by a Bedouin shepherd chasing a stray, the initial Dead Sea Scrolls found here changed the study of the Old Testament.  The cave contained the seven scrolls were the Manual of Discipline, War of Sons of Light, Thanksgiving Scroll, Isaiah A and B, Genesis Apocryphon and Habakkuk Commentary.

 Finding by Scientific Classification: 1Q - 1QapGen, 1QHab, 1QH, 1QIsa, 1QIsb, 1QM, 1QS, 1Q1-1Q27 and 1Q28a-1Q72. See the “Official Abbreviations for the DS Scrolls Documentation”.

 Cave 2

Three years later in 1952, the Bedouin, working with Kando, uncovered numerous fragments and sold them to the Palestine Archaeological Museum and the Ecole Biblique.

Finding by Scientific Classification: 2Q documents are inventoried  from 2Q1 to 2Q33. See the “Official Abbreviations for the DS Scrolls Documentation”.

 Cave 3

The Cave 3 is the most far cave from the Qumran site, is located about 2 miles (3.5 Km) north to Qumran. Cave 3 at Qumran was the first cave to be explored by archaeologists in 1953. Two copper rolls were discovered off by themselves in the back of the cave, but being made of corroded metal they could not be merely unrolled by conventional means. Professor H. Wright Baker, of the College of Technology at Manchester, England, cut the sheets into strips, and it became clear that the rolls were part of the same document. Low-quality photographs of the scrolls were taken and published, but scholars have found these to be difficult to work with, and have relied on a drawing of the text by scholar Józef Milik. While his edition was published in 1962, he was beaten to the punch by another scholar, John Marco Allegro, who published his translation separately, and controversially, in 1960. The scroll was re-photographed in 1988 in much better quality, thanks to efforts led by P. Kyle McCarter, Jr.

Finding by Scientific Classification: 3Q documents are inventoried  as Copper Scroll (3Q15), and 3Q1-3Q14. See the “Official Abbreviations for the DS Scrolls Documentation”.

Cave 4

In August 1952 the Bedouin made a find in Cave 4. Large volumes of scroll fragments (though no complete scrolls) soon surfaced on the antiquities market. When Harding discovered the site more than half of the cache had been gathered from the cave. The archaeological excavation began in late September of that year, yielding many more fragments from many more texts, as well as a second chamber to the cave.

The financially struggling Jordanian government soon found itself unable to fund further purchases, and so instead offered the opportunity to foreign institutions to invest in the acquisition of the scrolls, for which they would be compensated with fragments. Several institutions responded, but were to be denied their purchase and refunded their money when the Jordanian government changed its position, instead keeping the texts in Jordan. Since the late fifties, about 40% of the Scrolls, mostly fragments from Cave 4, remained unpublished and were inaccessible.

This cave is most famous of the Dead Sea Scroll caves is also the most significant in terms of finds.  More than 15,000 fragments from over 200 books were found in this cave, nearly all by Bedouin thieves.  122 biblical scrolls (or fragments) were found in this cave.  From all 11 Qumran caves, every Old Testament book is represented except Esther.  No New Testament books or fragments have been found. The scrolls found in this cave were poorly preserved because they were not stored in jars.  The practice of paying “per piece” led to the creation of multiple fragments from single pieces by the Bedouin thieves.   This cave was among those looted by the Bedouin in the free afternoons of the days they were in the employ of the Qumran archaeologists.

Finding by Scientific Classification: 4Q documents are inventoried  as 4Q1-4Q561. See the “Official Abbreviations for the DS Scrolls Documentation”.

Caves 5 and 6

Excavations at Cave 4 soon led to the discovery of Cave 5, offering a modest yield of fragments. The Bedouin, shortly thereafter, found Cave 6, removing the remains of nearly three dozen more scrolls. Most of these were papyrus rather than the leather that predominated in the other caves. Mar Samuel tried in vain to sell the texts in his possession, even displaying them once at the Library of Congress. Finally a now famous advertisement was taken out in the Wall Street Journal. On June 1, 1954, a Wall Street Journal ad proclaimed, “The Four Dead Sea Scrolls: Biblical Manuscripts dating back to at least 200 BC [sic], are for sale. This would be an ideal gift to an educational or religious institution by an individual or group.” This ad was brought to the attention of Yigael Yadin, who, working through an intermediary, managed to purchase the scrolls for the sum of $250,000.  Cave 5 is an eroded cave and was discovered by the archaeologists (Bedouin found caves 1, 2, 4, 6, 11).  It is one of those in the marl terrace close to the site of Qumran (also caves 4, 7, 8, 9, 10).  Archaeologists estimate that there were originally 30-40 caves in the marl terrace.    Cave 6 was not used for inhabitation, but only for the deposit of scrolls.  This is the most accessible of the Dead Sea Scrolls to visitors today (follow the aqueduct from Qumran to the hills and it’s on the left).

 Caves 7-10

In 1955 archaeologists would discover four more caves, 7 through 10. Yielding few fragments, they were nonetheless significant. Cave 7 would yield nineteen Greek fragments (including 7Q5) and spark much debate in the ensuing decades. Cave 8 held but five fragments, though many materials used in the tying of scrolls would be found. Cave 9 held but one fragment and Cave 10 nothing but an ostracon. The cave 7 collapsed shortly after the scrolls were hidden.

In Cave 8 were discovered 8QMezuzah, Genesis, and a hundred squares of small leather with strips.  The man who lived here had the job of making these strips

Cave Seven – 7Q – 7Q1-7Q19

All the manuscripts recovered from this cave are in Greek and, until recently, were thought to be exclusively biblical compositions. There has been some conjecture that they were New Testament texts, however this seems so unlikely that it requires extraordinary supporting evidence to be taken seriously. The best recent evidence suggests something quite different.

Ernest A. Muro, Jr. and Emile Puech identify certain of these Cave 7 fragments as parts of the Book of Enoch. Mr. Muro’s published copies of these fragments, an introduction to the fragments from this cave, the complete text of his December 1997 article in Revue de Qumran, and a summary of the related article by Fr. Puech in the same issue. Their analyses cover fragments 4, 8, and 11 – 14.

 Cave 11

The Bedouin discovered Cave 11, yielding over two dozen texts, including the Temple Scroll, which would later be seized by the Israeli army at the behest of Yigael Yadin. Two other scrolls emerged from Cave 11, a copy of Leviticus and a book of Psalms, including several previously unknown hymns. Many have speculated that more Cave 11 scrolls may rest in the hands of a private collector.

The Temple Scroll, found in Cave 11, is the longest scroll. Its present total length is 26.7 feet (8.148 meters). The overall length of the original scroll must have been over 28 feet (8.75m).

11Q19 (11Qtemple-a) 11QTemple Scroll a ¤,1 [154-179]

Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 3 vols. and Suppl. (Jerusalem 1977:Hebrew edition; 1983:English edition with supplements) Complete edition of the Temple Scroll.

This is the scroll found under the tile floor of Kando’s house and confiscated by the Israeli army after they gained control the the West Bank following the Six Day War. Yadin had been negotiating with Kando for this scroll before the war without success. Eventually, the Israeli government paid Kando a total of $105,000 after negotiations lasting almost a year. The highest asking price prior to the war was $750,000.

Additional fragments were stored by Kando in a cigar box. Later it was learned that some additional fragments were stored behind family pictures in Kando’s home and that of his brother. All this material, along with one fragment given to Yadin during the earlier negotiations, constitute the Temple Scroll listed under this number and 11Q20 (11QTempleb) 11QTemple Scrollb, 11Q Torah. As far as I can tell none of it was recovered from Cave 11 directly by trained archaeologists.

The scroll contains major portions of the Pentateuch, but it is frequently written in the first person. The same is true of the supplementary laws in the Temple Scroll that are not in the Pentateuch. Most interestingly, this Torah contains detailed plans for the Jerusalem Temple construction which are notably missing from the Pentateuch, though referred to indirectly in I Chronicles 28:11-19. Nearly half of the Temple Scroll is taken up with the plans for the Temple, sacrifices, and laws of the city of the Temple.

Yadin doubts that this is the actual missing scroll. When he named it the Temple Scroll, he was thinking rather that it may reflect knowledge of and an attempt to preserve an earlier tradition known to the author.
 
Another part of the Temple Scroll contains the so-called Statutes of the King. The original text was traditionally written by Samuel and laid before the King. No record of what Samuel wrote survives in the Torah. But it is referred to in Deuteronomy 17:15-20 and in I Samuel 8:11ff.

For these and other reasons, Yadin concludes that this scroll was, for the Essenes (his term), a holy canonical book on a par with the other holy books of the Bible.

Yadin relates an interesting correspondence between the statues in the Temple Scroll and the known behavior of the Jerusalem Essenes as related by Josephus, who actually lived with a group of wilderness Essenes for a time as a young man. This concerns the laws on defecation. The law requires that the latrines be built 3000 cubits from the camps. Since the Essenes, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll considered the entire city of Jerusalem a camp, the toilets were outside the city by nearly a mile. Since 3000 cubits exceeds the distance allowed for walking on the Sabbath, the Essenes were not allowed to relieve themselves on the Sabbath. Josephus reports observing this behavior during his stay with the Essenes. Yadin notes that Josephus also refers to an Essene Gate, mentioned nowhere else, which may have been the one used by the Essenes when they left the city to relieve themselves. The Temple Scroll describes the building of public toilets northwest of the city. This reference provides a good clue to the location of the Essene Gate. Josephus mentions that near the Essene Gate was a place called Betsoe, which Yadin says is obviously Beth-Tsoah in Hebrew, i.e., a lavatory.

The Documents of the Community

Unlike their rabbinic contemporaries, the people of Qumran did not immediately (if ever) develop the notion of a closed canon. They obviously invested some of their own writings—the indigenous or sectarian texts—with the same (perhaps even greater?) authority and holiness as held by the Bible. These foundation documents of the Qumran covenanters reveal an attachment to and profound belief in the continuity of biblical Israel, prophesy, and covenental renewal Based on a list compiled by Professor Talmon, these foundation documents (the majority of which come from Cave 1) may be summarized as follows:

The Damascus Document (CD), sometimes called the Zadokite Rule, includes a compressed survey of the history of the yahad, along with a selection of legal materials, written in a style somewhat reminiscent of the biblical book of Deuteronomy. The historical account and the statutes appear to pertain to the entire “Community of the Renewed Covenant,” that is, to the members who live with their families in “camps” in various locations in Judea (Roman Palestine), as well as to the relatively small commune of members (all male?) who resided at Qumran, perhaps for only a season.

The Rule of the Community (1QS), or Manual of Discipline as it is often called, lists the precepts, structure, and public procedures of the community, and prescribes the conduct of its members. The Messianic Rule (1QSa) offers a description of an envisioned messianic banquet based on the kind of common meals engaged in by the covenanters at Qumran. It also describes a future general assembly for the members of the community, at which time all precepts of the covenant will be publicly read before the entire community—priests, Levites and lay-Israelites, men and women alike, and also children who are mature enough to understand the proceedings (1QSa I 1–5). Professor Talmon asserts that this gathering is, in fact, a replica of Nehemiah’s “great convocation” (see Nehemiah 8).

The War Rule (1QM) presents legal and descriptive details of the cataclysmic war in which the Sons of Light (the Qumran covenanters) will finally overcome all Sons of Darkness (the wicked). In the ensuing era of universal peace, the covenanters will reestablish the temple in the New Jerusalem, the capital of their messianic kingdom, which is “a glorified reflection of Israel’s historical commonwealth.”

The Temple Scroll (11QTemple) describes a future purified temple to be established as the ritual center for Israel. This document somewhat resembles the books of the Law, but it is God, not Moses, who directly addresses the people in the Temple Scroll.

The Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab) or Habakkuk Commentary, as well as portions of other pesharim (commentaries), provide information on some aspects of the covenanters’ history by interpreting certain nonhistorical texts of the Hebrew Bible as referring to historical events and historical people. In other words, the authors of these pesharim interpret the scriptural texts as foreshadowings of the historical experiences of their community. The Kittim, for example, in the commentaries on Habakkuk and Nahum are represented as instruments of God, appointed to punish the ungodly priests in Jerusalem. It is believed that the Kittim were the Romans.

Miqsat Ma’aseh ha-Torah (4QMMT) is a pieced-together collection of the fragments of copies of a document from Cave 4 that provides supplementary information on the outlook and function of the community. These foundation documents are addressed specifically to the people of the Qumran community. The legal prescriptions contained in them are not considered debatable: “Based on inspiration, they are binding . . . [and] are ‘handed down’ like biblical ordinances.” Thus the scrolls used by the people of Qumran have provided valuable information about a complex time period to which Christians trace their own spiritual roots.